Edited by: Tecnológico Superior Corporativo

Edwards Deming

July - December Vol. 8 - 2 - 2024

https://revista-edwardsdeming.com/index.php/es

e-ISSN: 2576-0971

Received: January 12, 2024

Approved: June 12, 2024

Page 59-72

Analysis of the carbon footprint of electric vehicles

in relation to their life cycle

Análisis de la huella de carbono de los vehículos eléctricos con

relación a su ciclo de vida

Juan Carlos Rubio Terán

Esteban David Vásconez Almeida

ABSTRACT

In order to determine the environmental impact of electric

vehicles (EVs), a comparative analysis was made between

the CO2 emissions of internal combustion vehicles (ICEs)

during their entire life cycle and the emissions of electric

vehicles. This study sought to have a more realistic

perspective. For this purpose, the life cycle of both types

of vehicles was divided into three phases, calculating the kg

of CO2 emitted during each of them. The results showed

the significant difference in CO2 emissions generated by

both types of vehicles, with ICVs generating 32,492 kg of

CO2 more than EVs with NCM lithium-ion batteries and

32,403.7 kg of CO2 for those with LFP batteries. Once the

analysis was done, it was determined that EVs are an

appropriate response to the environmental crisis that the

world is currently facing.

Key words: Electric vehicles, emissions, internal

combustion vehicles, kg CO2, lithium-ion battery,

environmental crisis.

RESUMEN

Con el fin de determinar el impacto ambiental de los

vehículos eléctricos (VEs), se realizó un análisis

comparativo entre las emisiones de CO2 de los vehículos

de combustión interna (VCIs) durante todo su ciclo de vida

y las emisiones de los vehículos eléctricos. Este estudio

buscó tener una perspectiva más realista. Para esto, se

* MBA– Ingeniero Mecánico Automotriz. Universidad Internacional del

Ecuador, jrubio@uide.edu.ec, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7300-8204

* Estudiante de Ingeniería Automotriz Universidad Internacional Ecuador,

esvasconezal@uide.edu.ec, https://orcid.org/0009-0002-4324-5748

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dividió al ciclo de vida de ambos tipos de vehículos en tres

fases, calculando los kg de CO2 emitidos durante cada una

de ellas. Los resultados evidenciaron la significativa

diferencia de emisiones de CO2 generadas por ambos

tipos de vehículos, siendo los VCIs los que generaron

32,492 kg de CO2 más que los VEs con batería de ion-litio

NCM y 32,403.7 kg de CO2 para los que tienen batería

LFP. Una vez realizado el análisis se determinó que los VEs

son una respuesta apropiada para enfrentar la crisis

ambiental que enfrenta el mundo actualmente.

Palabras clave: Vehículos eléctricos, emisiones,

vehículos de combustión interna, kg de CO2, batería ion-

litio, crisis ambiental.

INTRODUCTION

The Electric Vehicle (EV) has re-emerged as a suitable candidate to respond to the

environmental crisis, resulting from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, that the planet is

currently facing. This has resulted in a growing incidence of these in the global market,

accounting for 5.6% of all vehicles sold worldwide in 2022, compared to 0.5% in 2018

(Kwok et al., 2023). Faced with such a prospect, an increasingly growing automotive

industry, with a 6% increase in total vehicle production by 2022, according to the

Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles (OICA, 2023), has sought

to encourage the implementation of such vehicles in the global market. Ecuador has

joined this electrification campaign, with a 56% growth in sales of electrified vehicles in

2022 compared to the previous year (Asociación de Empresas Automotrices del

Ecuador [AEADE], 2023).

EVs offer advantages such as reduced maintenance and spare parts usage, zero emissions

from the exhaust system and higher efficiency of the power generated by the powertrain

(Wang & Santini, 1993). While this may lead to the interpretation that EVs are

completely environmentally benign, this is not entirely accurate. The reality is more

complex, so a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) becomes imperative to give a holistic view

of the true environmental impact of EVs.

In this study, a comparative investigation of the impact of EVs in relation to their

counterpart, Internal Combustion Vehicles (ICEs) in relation to their lifecycle was

carried out in order to determine whether the electric alternative satisfactorily meets

the global need to reach zero emissions by 2050. In comparison to other related studies,

which have focused exclusively on one of the phases that make up the car lifecycle, such

as Qiao et al. (2017), who only focus on the Production Phase, this one addresses all

aspects involved in the life of both types of vehicles, dividing the research into three

parts: Production Phase, Operation Phase and End-of-Life Phase. Unlike other studies

that address the entire life cycle, but treat each phase superficially, such as Kawamoto

et al, this one focuses on each phase in detail.

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In order to determine the emissions produced during the production phase of both

types of vehicles (EVs and LCVs) within the analysis, data were extracted from the work

of Qiao et al. in order to establish the basis and limits of the study. The data of this

research were selected based on the following criteria: they are focused on the Chinese

industry, the country of origin of the vehicles with the highest incidence in the

Ecuadorian market; the specifications of the vehicle selected as the object of study

correspond to the type of vehicle most marketed in Ecuador, being the SUV, in addition

to being able to compare the data obtained by Qiao et al. (2019) and Lai et al. (2022);

the analysis carried out by Qiao et al. is more extensive and precise, focusing on all the

emissions generated during the Production Phase, detailing the CO2 emitted in the

manufacture of all the components belonging to the vehicle, as well as taking into

consideration their assembly.

To calculate the amount of CO2 produced, the components that make up the car were

divided into three families: Basic Components, Special Components and Battery

Components and Accessories. Finally, a section is established detailing the emissions

emitted during the assembly process. In this way, the difference in emissions produced

during the production of EVs and ICVs can be accurately compared. The data is as

follows:

Table 1. Emissions produced during the Production Phase per kilogram of CO2

Family

Component

Emissions from

vcis (kg-CO2)

Emissions from

Ves with

battery NCM

(kg-CO2)

Emissions

from Evs with

LFP battery

(kg-CO2)

Basic

Components

Body: including

body only, interior,

exterior, and

glazing

2767,9

4393,5

1684,7

2665,5

Chassis (excluding

battery)

2092,5

145,6

Special

Components

Powertrain System

617,4

455,2

Transmission

System

1179,1

Drive Motor

1010,2

Electronic

Controller

24,5

15,1

Battery

Components and

Accessories

Lead-Acid Battery

2788,8

2892,4

230,2

98,3

Lithium-ion Battery

677,1

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Assembly

Fluids

141.5

Rims

1064,1

Total

9172,5

14642,5

14746,1

It can be seen that in both types of EVs, those with NCM battery and those with LFP,

the production of LFP accounts for 19% to 20% of the total amount of emissions.

Within the analysis of the Operation Phase there are two fundamental parts to take into

account, the first is the calculation of the Carbon Footprint emitted during the operation

of the vehicle and the second is the Replacement and Maintenance.

Calculation of the Carbon Footprint emitted during the operation of the vehicle

The calculation of the carbon footprint generated during the operation of both types of

vehicles requires combining two methodologies, the GHG Protocol (2003) and ISO

14069 (2013), using actual data from the region studied, Ecuador. In order to perform

the calculation, it is necessary to determine the period of time over which the analysis

is to be carried out, the recommended period being one year, because the necessary

data must be quantified in a cyclical manner.

The method to be used is the so-called "Energy Method" and it is used to calculate the

energy production during the established period of time. For this purpose, the amount

of energy produced by the country's non-renewable energy sources during the year

2022, the last year for which the information issued by the Agency for Regulation and

Control of Energy and Non-Renewable Natural Resources (ARCERNNR) in the

publication "Annual and Multiannual Statistics 2022" (2023) is available, where it is

determined that the total energy produced by these sources, which in 2022

corresponded to 23.89% of the total number of producing sources, gives a sum of

7884.37 GWh. In turn, it is necessary to use the value of the Emission Factor, which is

given by the National Interconnected System and not incorporated in the "2022 Report"

(2023), which is 0.5015 Tn CO2/MWh. Finally, the value of the Global Warming

Potential (GWP), extracted from the Kyoto Protocol (SEARCH AND PUT), is required.

This is equal to 1 Tn CO2-eq/Tn GHG. The calculations are as follows:

HC= Energy Produced ×FE ×GWP Eq. [2.2.1.1].

Where:

HC: Annual Carbon Footprint (Tn CO2-eq).

Energy Produced: Total Energy Produced by non-renewable sources (MWh).

EF: Annual Emission Factor (Tn CO2-eq/MWh).

GWP: Global Warming Potential (Tn CO2-eq/Tn GHG).

This results in an Annual Carbon Footprint value of 3,954,011.555 (Tn CO2-eq/MWh).

Next, the HC emitted during the charging of electric vehicles must be determined. For

this it is necessary to calculate the EF per KWh of consumption, which is done with the

following formula:

FE= (Total net emissions)/(Total electricity production) Eq. [2.2.1.2].

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Where:

FE: Emission factor per unit of energy available for consumption (kg CO2-

eq/KWh).

Total net emissions: Annual HC (Tn CO2-eq).

Total electricity production: Total energy produced in a year (MWh).

This determines that the EF per KWh is 0.119499 kg CO2-eq/Kwh.

Then the HC of the vehicle under study has to be calculated. For this purpose, the Kia

Soul model was taken as an example, extracting its consumption rates from the research

by Murillo & Murillo (2019). To do so, the same formula of the Energy Method was used,

modifying the units of the EF obtained to (kg CO2-eq/KWh) or (Kg CO2-eq/L)

depending on the type of vehicle analysed. Finally, the variable "Energy Produced" was

removed and changed to "Energy Consumed", whose units of measurement are (L/Km)

or (KWh/Km) as appropriate. It should be clarified that the EF used for the calculation

of the VCI was 2.2 (kg CO2-eq/L) as defined in the GHG Protocol. Thus, the following

values were obtained:

HCVE = 0.0238 (kg CO2-eq/km) Eq. [2.2.1.3].

HCVCI = 0.189 (kg CO2-eq/km) Eq. [2.2.1.4].

Finally, from the study by Hernandez et al. (2022) the value of the amount of CO2

emitted on the fuel path from the well to the refuelling stations, to consequently be

supplied to the VCI during its entire lifetime, was extracted. Its value is 7432.17 kg CO2,

which should be added to the total amount of CO2 generated at the end of the life cycle.

Replacements and Maintenance.

Within the useful life of the vehicle, there are several components that need to be

replaced. The periodicity with which they need to be changed will depend on the

component in question. The respective information was extracted from Kawamoto et

al. and Qiao et al.

Table 2. Replacement of components during the lifetime of the vehicle.

Componente

No.

Kg-CO2

Tipo Vehículo

Batería de ion-litio NCM

2788,8

160.000

Batería de ion-litio LFP

2892,4

160.000

Batería de Plomo-Ácido

24.5/15.1

VCI/VE

50.000

Llantas

9,1 (unidad)

VCI/VE

40.000

Aceite de Motor

3,9

VCI

5.000/1.000

Refrigerante de Radiador

7,2

VCI

25.000

Total 5.753,2/2.743,8

Source: Qiao et al. (2017, p. 11); Kawamoto et.al (2019, p. 8).

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In the case of engine oil, the data extracted from the literature were modified to adjust

them to the reality of the country, defining the periodicity with which it is changed in

every five thousand kilometres, excluding the first oil change, which is recommended to

be changed after the first thousand kilometres. The same occurred in the case of radiator

coolant, defining the value at 25,000 kilometres.

End-of-Life Phase

There is considerable uncertainty concerning the exact values of kg CO2 emitted during

the end-of-life stage of an electric vehicle. Values related to recycling and reuse of

lithium-ion batteries still remain imprecise and/or undetermined. For this reason, the

End-of-Life Cycle Phase (ELC) of this study has been divided into two parts in order to

exclude imprecision in the calculation, but to keep the state-of-the-art in the analysis in

perspective. Thus, the collected inventory will be presented first in the Treatment of

Components, followed by the sub-theme Advances and State-of-the-art.

Treatment of Components

The CO2 emissions regarding the treatment of end-of-life vehicle components have been

referenced from Kawamoto et al. where there are four processes, which are applied in

the treatment of both types of vehicles, these are: Disassembly, Vehicle Shredding and

Sorting, Waste Transport and Waste Disposal. The values for the four processes are

shown in table 3.

Table 3. CO2 emissions during the treatment of vehicles.

Procesos

Emisiones de CO2 (kg CO2)

Desensamblado

Trituración y Clasificación de los vehículos

Transporte de los Residuos

Depósito de los Residuos

Total

Source: Kawamoto et.al (2019, p. 8).

According to Kawamoto et al. the values for the Disassembly process are considerably lower

than the rest, so they have not been taken into account.

Progress and future projections

"Following the European directives on the end-of-life of vehicles and waste batteries, vehicles

and batteries should be collected and recycled once they have reached their end-of-life"

(Koroma, M, S et al., 2022).

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From the study by Lai et al. an estimate of the potential for emission reductions generated

during the FCV of lithium-ion batteries was extracted. The reuse potential of the batteries was

taken into consideration, which can also reduce the emissions generated during the Production

Phase. This potential was calculated by combining three battery recycling and reuse methods:

pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy and physical recycling.

Figure 1. GHG emissions during the production of batteries under recycling and reuse

of materials

Source: Lai et al. (2022, p. 16).

Figure 1 shows that by 2030 the carbon footprint generated during the production of

lithium-ion battery feedstock has the potential to be reduced by 11.9%. In turn, it can be

determined that the hydrometallurgical method is the recommended method to be used.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study is focused on analysing the entire lifetime of both types of vehicles (EVs and

LCVs). To do so, the amount of CO2 emissions was divided into three different phases,

which are detailed below:

1. Production Phase: Extraction of raw material, production of material and its

transformation, production of vehicle components, assembly.

2. Operation Phase: Production of electrical energy, combustion of gasoline,

replacement of components, vehicle efficiency.

3. FCV: Disposal of components, lithium battery recycling

methods.

The study has Ecuador as the study region; however, for the Production Phase and the

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FCV, data from different regions were extrapolated because of the lack of the necessary

processes in the Ecuadorian environment to provide information about these phases.

Thus, for both phases, data was taken from various studies conducted in the United

States, Europe and Asia.

Study vehicle

The subject of this study was selected in order to focus the study on the vehicle with

the highest incidence and relevance in the market. This will be the one taken into account

by Qiao et al. (2017), being the so-called SUV. This class was selected because, according

to the information compiled in the "Yearbook 2022", developed by the AEADE (2023)

at the end of September 2023, which stipulates that the Ecuadorian automotive market,

in terms of light vehicles, is made up of 45.7% of SUVs marketed in the country. Within

the Operation Phase, the Kia Soul model was taken as an example, in its electric and

petrol version, in order to calculate the HC. This vehicle was chosen because it

corresponds to the SUV category, adding that it has the advantage of having both types

of vehicles studied.

Table 2. Component weights of the study vehicle differentiated by ICV and EV (excluding

batteries, fluids and tyres)

Componente

VCI: Material

Convencional (kg)

VE: Material

Convencional (kg)

Sistema de Tren de

Potencia

332: 39,5% acero, 28,6%

hierro fundido, 17,1% aluminio

fundido, 2,9% cobre/latón, 9,3%

plástico, 2,6% caucho

28.8: 50% acero, 20,5%

cobre/latón, 29,5%

plástico

Sistema de Transmisión

81.4: 30% acero, 30% hierro

fundido, 30% aluminio forjado,

5% plástico, 5% caucho

55.8: 60,5% acero, 18,9%

cobre/latón, 20% aluminio

forjado, 0,2% plástico,

0,4% otros

Motor de Tracción

113.3: 36,1% acero,

36,1% aluminio fundido,

27,8% cobre/latón

Controlador Electrónico

99.8: 5% acero, 46,9%

aluminio fundido, 8,2%

cobre/latón, 3,7% caucho,

23,8% plástico, 12,4%

otros

Chasis (sin la batería)

309: 84,1% acero, 6,9% hierro

fundido, 1% aluminio fundido,

1,2% cobre/latón, 1,8%

plástico, 4,4% caucho, 0,6%

otros

488.8: 84,1% acero, 6,9%

hierro fundido, 1%

aluminio fundido, 1,2%

cobre/latón, 1,8% plástico,

4,4% caucho, 0.6% otros

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Cuerpo: incluyendo el

cuerpo únicamente, el

interior, el exterior y

vidrios

570.1: 68,3% acero, 0,7%

aluminio forjado, 1,9%

cobre/latón, 6,5% vidrio, 18,1%

plástico, 0,5% caucho, 4% otros

904.9: 68,3% acero, 0,7%

aluminio forjado, 1,9%

cobre/latón, 6,5% vidrio,

18,1% plástico, 0,5%

caucho, 4% otros

Source: Qiao el at. (2017, p. 10).

Table 2. Weights of study vehicle components and number of component replacements taking

into account the lifetime of batteries, fluids and tyres.

Baterías, llantas y

fluidos

VCI: Material

Convencional (kg)

VE: Material

Convencional (kg)

Remplazos

Batería de Plomo-Ácido

16,3: 6,1%

polipropileno, 69%

plomo, 7,9% agua, 0,8%

otros

10: 6,1% polipropileno, 69%

plomo, 7,9% agua, 0,8% otros

Batería LFP

230: 24,4% material activo,

15,2% grafito/carbón, 2,1%

aglutinante, 12,4% cobre,

20,3% aluminio forjado,

18,2% hexafluorofosfato de

litio. 7,8% carbonato de

etileno, 7,8% carbonato de

dimetilo, 1,9% polipropileno,

0,3% polietileno, 1,2%

tereftalato de polietileno,

1,5% acero, 0,3% aislamiento

térmico, 1% glicol, 1% partes

eléctricas

Batería NCM

170: 28,2% material activo,

18,3% grafito/carbón, 2,4%

aglutinante, 11,4% cobre,

29,7% aluminio forjado, 1,9%

hexafluorofosfato de litio.

5,4% carbonato de etileno,

5,4% carbonato de dimetilo,

1,7% polipropileno, 0,3%

polietileno, 1,2% tereftalato

de polietileno, 1,4% acero,

0,4% aislamiento térmico, 1%

glicol, 1,3% partes eléctricas

Llantas

9.1 (por llanta): 66,7%

caucho, 33,3% acero

9.1 (por llanta): 66,7%

caucho, 33,3% acero

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Aceite de Motor

3,9

Líquido de Freno

0,9

Líquido de Transmisión

10,9

0,8

Líquido Refrigerante

10,4

7,2

Refrigerante de

Radiador

2,7

From tables 1 and 2 it can be concluded that the net weight (taking into account battery,

tyres and fluids) of the ICV is 1387.8 kg. In turn, it can be concluded that the net weight

of the EV with NCM (Nickel-Cobalt-Manganese) battery is 1933 kg and with LFP

(Lithium-ferrophosphate) battery is 1993 kg.

Lifetime

"In order to perform an LCA study of an automobile, it is required to define the service

life based on the distance travelled as a functional unit" (Kawamoto et al., 2019). Based

on the study by Kawamoto et al. (2019), this research has defined 200,000km as the

useful life period of an automobile. This is because, as explained in the aforementioned

study, it is the approximate average, rounded to values of multiples of 100,000, of the

values extracted from the following literature:

Table 4. Useful life values according to literature.

Estudio

Valor de Vida útil (km)

BMW (2016)

150.000

Daimler (2018)

160.000

Ellingsen et al. (2016)

180.000

Messagie (2014), Audi (2012)

200.000

Amarakoon et al. (2013)

193.120

Ellingsen et al. (2016)

320.000

Toyota (2018)

100.000

Mazda (2017)

110.000

PROMEDIO

176.640

200.000

Source: Kawamoto et al. (2019, p. 4).

These values were selected because the research by Kawamoto et al. carried out a study

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sectioned into 5 different regions, namely Australia, the United States, Europe, Japan and

China, so the value they used is intended to be used universally.

RESULTS

Life cycle environmental impact

The comparison of the calculation of the carbon footprint generated during the entire

life cycle of EVs and ICVs is presented in Figure 1. It projects the sum of all the kilograms

of CO2 emitted during each of the life cycle phases, starting with the base values of the

total emissions generated in the Production Phase and ending with the last values

generated in the FCA, whose relatively insignificant values are projected in a flat closure,

concluding the relatively linear growth that is reflected during the useful life of the

vehicles.

In order to project a growth as close as possible to the actual growth of the total 7432.17

kg CO2 emitted during the transport of fossil fuels over the entire lifetime of the ICV,

the proportional emitted up to the mileage value of each of the necessary replacements

and maintenance was used.

Figure 2. Emissions produced during life cycle

Source: Authors, 2024

As can be seen in Figure 2, the CO2 emissions generated during the Operation Phase

of both types of EVs are relatively null, mainly affected by maintenance and component

replacements, with the replacement of the lithium-ion battery having the greatest impact.

Finally, it can be seen that after approximately 30,000 kilometres of operation, the

carbon footprint of ICVs exceeds that of EVs.

In total, the emissions generated during the lifetime of EVs are divided into 22,378.2 kg

CO2 for EVs with NCM batteries and 22,466.5 kg CO2 for those with LFP batteries. In

the case of ICVs, emissions total 54,870.2 kg CO2. Finally, it is necessary to add the 65

kg CO2 emitted during the End-of-Life Phase to the total of the three types of vehicles.

54.870,2

22.378,2

0,0

10.000,0

20.000,0

30.000,0

40.000,0

50.000,0

60.000,0

0 50 100 150 200

VCI

VE NCM

54.870,2

22.466,5

0,0

10.000,0

20.000,0

30.000,0

40.000,0

50.000,0

60.000,0

0 50 100 150 200

VCI

VE LFP

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Estimation of the future environmental impact of the implementation of new

technologies

In the studies of Lai et al. and Murillo & Murillo there is a potential to reduce the carbon

footprint of EVs. Figure 3 shows an estimate of the possible emissions that will be

generated in 2030 by EVs. From Lai et al. the value of electric battery production using

the hydrometallurgy method was extracted. For the calculation a HC of 0.0345 (kg CO2-

eq/km) was used, calculated in consideration of the projections of Murillo & Murillo. The

HC of EVs is higher due to the increase in electricity production at country level. For

calculation purposes, the specifications of the selected vehicle, the Kia Soul, were

maintained. Similarly, the kg CO2 values of the other components involved in the

Production Phase, as well as the necessary lifetime replacements, were maintained in the

absence of further information in the literature, excluding the lithium-ion batteries.

Figure 3. Emissions produced during the life cycle.

Source: Authors, 2024

From Figure 3 it can be concluded that the values for EVs with NCM and LFP batteries

have as final values 22,290 kg CO2 and 22,427.4 respectively. The increase of the HC of

the vehicle was responsible for the minimal reduction of CO2 emissions generated by

the EVs during their lifetime.

DISCUSSION

The electric vehicle, despite emitting 37% more kg of CO2 during its manufacture, is

60% less polluting than the internal combustion vehicle over its entire life cycle. This is

due to its very small carbon footprint generated during its use phase, emitting 83% less

kg of CO2 during its lifetime. Due to this it can be determined that the electric vehicle

is currently the most environmentally friendly commercial option.

It is important to clarify that within the analysis the values of kg CO2 generated during

the irresponsible disposal of lithium-ion batteries were excluded due to uncertainty and

lack of accurate information. Taking into account the above, it is imperative to recognise

0,0

5.000,0

10.000,0

15.000,0

20.000,0

25.000,0

0 50 100 150 200

VE NCM

VE LFP

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e-ISSN: 2576-0971

that the calculation of the carbon footprint of electric vehicles is not accurate and that

the actual CO2 emission generated by electric vehicles may be significantly higher than

the one presented in this paper.

Due to the uncertainty of the current scenario, a projection into the future was included

in the analysis, where it is foreseen that the treatment of vehicle waste will be more

controlled and monitored, giving greater accuracy in the data obtained.

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